The United States: A Road to Independence (5)

I am so glad that this is already the fifth article of this series. In the last article we looked into the beginning of the French-Indian War; we will discuss the progress and end, and the post-war world.

The United States: A Road to Independence (5)

In the last scene in the last article, George Washington was able to rally the troops and retreat from the hell of the Monongahela forest. After this devastating defeat, Great Britain was seemingly alarmed and paid a lot of attention to the North American theater of the war with sending new generals. There were two major reasons for this.

The first reason was that the very reason why Great Britain joined the war was to defeat the French in colonial competition. In fact, in mainland Europe, Friedrich the Great was doing his work in the ‘real’ war and Great Britain served a passive role of financially aiding the cause. Instead, the empire was fighting France in India and Africa. Great Britain was able to spare some of their resources after the decisive victory by General Robert Clive at the Battle of Plassey in India in 1757.

The second reason was the new British Chancellor of the Exchequer(Secretary of State) William Pitt. This prominent figure, who later becomes the Prime Minister, knew what was needed to be done in order to win the war; he decided to channel their firepower on big cities such as Quebec and Montreal, not on the frontier like the Ohio River Valley. While sending Count Campbell to drill the colonial militia, Pitt focused on persuading other members of the cabinet to send in more troops.

(William Pitt showed how much bureaucracy could improve. If this guy remained in his office a little longer, the United States could not have achieved independence.)

France did not sit still either. Louis Joseph de Montcalm, war-hero from the War of Austrian Succession, came to the Americas. General Montcalm commanded the French regulars stationed in Canada and occupied Fort Ticonderoga and Fort William-Henry.

(General Montcalm blazed through present-day American-Canadian border as if he wanted to prove there had been no good commander in the British army.)

The Montcalm offensive reached a crescendo at the Battle of Carillon. Count James Abercrombie, a newly-appointed commander of the Red Coats of the time, marched his troops of 17,000 men to Lake Champlain and Fort William-Henry which was owned by the French now.

(Lake Champlain is in between New York and Quebec. Regardless of directions, you had to go through this region if you wish to move between New York and Quebec.)

(The deployments at the Battle of Carillon. The blue team is the French; the red is the British.)

Arrogant and incompetent Count Abercrombie sent just the infantry to the fort only to be met by Montcalm’s strong defensive artillery fire. The British were destroyed due to their blunder. 17,000 Red Coats were routed by 3,400 not to mention it was a devastating defeat. British casualties were 1,900 while the French suffered only 200.

(The French troops praising the victory. However, their heroic triumphs will soon face an end.)

William Pitt, pissed off at the results, sent two aces to North America: General Jeffrey Amherst and Brigadier General James Wolfe. If these guys had screwed up, the political life of Pitt would have ended as well. However, that never happened.

(General Amherst was an experienced, well-thinking commander. He would later become the first governor of Canada, setting a precedent of the Canadian government of today. Personally, he was later appointed as the Commander-in-Chief of the entire British army, and was offered to fight the Americans during the Revolutionary War; his demand to have 75,000 was declined and Henry Clinton took the spot.)

(General Wolfe was a very brave man, although people thought he was kind of mad because of his excessive bravery and patriotism. However, he was considered to be good at ‘war.’)

Thanks to General Amherst’s excellent commanding skills, the British offensive was ignited. General Wolfe’s valor was outstanding at the Battle of Louisburg. The Red Coats conducted amphibious operations and besieged the fort for 44 days to occupy the strategic point.

(The attacking route of the imperial army. As shown in the map, it was necessary to gain control of Louisburg in order to advance to Quebec and Montreal by the sea.)

(The Red Coats’ landing party. Our bro James Wolfe’s boat was in front of everyone.)

On the 44th day of the siege, the British artillery fire broke down a part of the fort wall and 5,000 French troops surrendered. This opened the sea route to Great Britain. However, there were two hinderance that stopped General Wolfe from attacking Quebec right away. One was the brutal winter of Canada. Like in Europe, it was the best decision a commander can make to continue military campaigns during the winter of North America. The other reason was desease. A severe fever raided the camp of both sides, and Wolfe himself had to stay in bed for a few days.

These two factors that protected cornered General Montcalm and his French troops were gone by the summer of 1759. General Jeffrey Amherst, now the Commander-in-Chief of the British Army, decided to march his army separated in three. He, himself, would lead the first army to siege Fort Ticonderoga, Sir William Johnson would march the second army to Niagara, and General Wolfe would occupy Quebec with the last army.

General Louis Montcalm noticed such movements and concentrated his remaining army to Quebec. Now, the question was, since Wolfe would have to cross the Lawrence River, where he would cross the river. Montcalm sent patrols to possible river banks for amphibious operations, but Wolfe proves himself to be a ‘mad man’ indeed. He ordered his troops to land on rough cliffs, not ordinary river banks. Montcalm did not know this surprise attack was possible, and it was too late when he finally found out.

(The Red Coats climbing up the cliffs. We can see there was something different to this guy.)

(The troop deployments right before the Battle of Plains of Abraham. A good portion of the French troops was constituted by militiamen, unlike the British, who were 100% regulars.)

The worst disadvantage of the French was the inferiority in their firepower; the militia force in the center was the biggest hole. The militiamen routed when the British regulars marched, in their tight formations, within 40 yard distance of the French and gave them a volley. The British power was channel to the center and General Montcalm, furious of the the infidelity of the center, tried to command the unit himself but was killed by a cannonball through his belly.

General Wolfe, who was ordering his troops to pursue the enemy, was also shot in his wrist, stomach, and chest. As he fell down, he left his famous remarks: “Then tell Colonel RIver, to cut off their retreat from the bridge. Now, God be praised, I die contented.” His epic death would be found useful to Pitt’s political propaganda.

(Death of General James Wolfe, who led the war to British victory with General Amherst.)

As Quebec fell, Montreal was safe no more. General Amherst’s army occupied Montreal in 1760, thus ending the war with French loss of the Canadian territory; the war left the French with only the Louisiana territory in North America. Let’s go back to the European theater and how things went there.

Friedrich the Great’s plan to exclude Austria from the war by besieging Vienna failed due to the defeat at the Battle of Kolin. However, his heroic victory at the consecutive Battles of Leuthen-Lorsbach, despite the numerical inferiority of 1:3, the king showed off the Prussian might. In spite of these brilliant tactics, Prussia suffered devastating defeat at the Battles of Zorndorf and Kunersdorf, because Russia was able to join the war at this point. Since then, Friedrich carried a small locket that had poison in it so that he can kill himself if need be.

(The worst defeat Friedrich the Great had to taste. 50,000 Prussians fought against 59,000 troops of Austro-Russian alliance, and only 3,000 returned to Berlin.)

Dawning new year of 1762 brought a huge change to the war: Elizabeth of Russia died and was succeeded by Peter III, who was a huge fanatic of Friedrich II. What this guy first did was to make peace with Prussia, which was on the verge of total destruction. Russian withdrawal from the war at the speed of light blew away the minds of France and Austria that were resiliently fighting the British at their breaking point.

(Peter III looked like a piece of potato. Soon, he would be ousted by his own wife, who later becomes Catherine the Great.)

Friedrich sensed Austria’s disappointment to the cause and mustered his last troops to march to Austria. His brother Archduke Heinrich destroyed the Austrians at the Battle of Freiberg and ended the war with a glorious victory. In 1763, the Treaty of Paris ended the world war.

The Seven Years’ War had an enormous impact on North America. First, France left the Canadian region and ceded the territories east of the Mississippi to Great Britain. This deepened French hatred of the British. Secondly, the colonist of the Thirteen Colonies realized that the Red Coats were not invincible. Finally, a huge deficit in the imperial treasury was caused. Great Britain not only aided Prussia but also fought in numerous places around the globe and was at the breaking point.

(The orange territory was the British territory before the war and the light green regions were ceded by the French after the war. Great Britain’s colonial territories became 4-times bigger than it used to be.)

Until the war ended in 1763, Great Britain implemented the measurement of ’salutary neglect,’ which gave the colonies much autonomy. This policy never documentally existed and was named so later on, because it just happened to be that way. Anyway, thanks to the ‘Salutary Neglect,’ the colonists came to believe that they were equal to their fellow Englishmen back in their mainland. One good example is the Navigation Act, which forced the colonies to trade only with Great Britain. This law was passed in the Parliament in the early 18th century, although nobody cared due to the Salutary Neglect. However, as the French-Indian War ended, this would change.

First, Great Britain set an imaginary line named “the Proclamation Line of 1763” to halt colonial expansion, and enforced the Navigation Law more strictly. The Proclamation Line of 1763, actually, was intended to protect the frontiersmen and seek a diplomatic measure to settle the Native American issues peacefully. Despite these good intentions, this law aroused much colonial anger, for they thought, “Well, we bled to gain the land from the French and now that they left, you guys are stopping us?” The colonists simply flipped their finger to the British and continued to migrate through the Appalachian mountains. This caused conflicts between the Native American tribes and the frontiersmen, which was the worst case scenario for the British who wanted to lessen the deficit.

(The Proclamation Line of 1763. It was not a real line, nor was it guarded by the British military.)

The strictly enforced Navigation Law was hated by the colonists as well, because they, as mentioned before, thought that they were equal to the British. They said, “We are no less subjects of His Majesty than those in England, but how come we are not supposed to trade with other countries of our liking?” As they wanted to trade and the government forbade such actions, smuggling was prevalent and this would help the Revolutionary War.

(The Triangular Trade that took place between West Africa, North America, and Great Britain. Because of the Navigation law, the American colonies would officially trade only with Great Britain.)

The British regulars that were sent to North America were kept stationed in the Thirteen colonies. Now the problem was their upkeep, and the British government decided that the colonists must pay for it. This also contributed to colonial grudges against Great Britain, for they saw no more threat as the French left. They believed that the British forces were just occupying military provisions. The worst came as George Grenville, brother-in-law of William Pitt who was now the Prime Minister, was appointed as the governor of North American colonies. This guy proposed many aggressive resolutions.

In 1764, to make up for the deficit, the Imperial parliament passed the Sugar Act that was proposed by George Grenville. It charged every product of sugar some taxes, and was the first taxation law that were ever imposed to the colonies. In 1765, the Parliament also passed the Quartering Act and the Stamp Act. The Quartering Act meant that the colonists were obliged to provide the soldiers with food and shelter if the soldiers asked. and this brought a huge opposition. It would be prohibited in the Constitution later on. The Stamp Act necessitated people to put stamps on every piece of paper in the Thirteen colonies; every piece of paper ranged from legal documents to game cards.

(a stamp that was worth 1 penny.)

What the colonists really hated, in fact, was not the laws themselves but their principles. The principle that was implied in these laws was that the taxes on the products within the colonies could be just justified. They knew that Great Britain wanted to end the Salutary Neglect and start a closer influence, granting less autonomy to the colonies. A huge aggressive riot was yet to be started, although the phrase “No taxation without representation” was shouted out through North America.

Many bright-minded people agreed to have a meeting in New York city to denounce this law; the meeting would later be referred to as the Stamp Act Congress. Delegates from 9 out 13 were present.

(The Stamp Act Congress.)

There were two major resolutions passed by the Stamp Act Congress. The first was to boycott British products. Great Britain usually bought raw materials from the colonies, forged them into products, and sold them back to the colonies. The second resolution was to send an official letter of grievances to the imperial parliament. They thought it might work if educated persons, not an angry mob, would like to make a point, it could be considered seriously.

The government of Great Britain was surprised to face much opposition in the New World, and repealed the Stamp Act in 1766. However, they still passed the Declatory Act, which stated taht the right to levy tax on the colonies was held by the imperial government, not the colonial dominions and it was possible to combine all 13 colonies into one if need be. The law, to the colonists, looked like an overture to the storm that was coming.

We have looked into how the Seven Years’ War ended and the postwar effects on North America. In the next article, we will be discussing Boston Massacre and the people that were sucked into the maelstrom of the Revolutionary War.

The United States: A Road to Independence (4)

In previous articles we have learned how 13 different colonies were established. Now we can discuss the Seven Years’ War, which is one of the direct causes of the Revolutionary War. Thank you for reading up to this point!

The United States: A Road to Independence (4)

The Seven Years’ War is often referred to as the Original World War, as the war was fought in vast areas because the European powers of the time fought not only in the Continent but also in their colonial areas. To talk of the Seven Years’ War, we should move the theater of this story from the Americas to Central Europe and see what happened.

Germany in 18th century was divided in to 300 small states under the loose leadership of the Holy Roman Empire. The entities influential to the European politics were Austria, Prussia, and Saxony. Austria had long been a power leader of the region and Prussia was a newly rising power of Northern Germany. Peace was ended as the monarchs of Austria and Prussia changed.

(This map makes me puke. Austrian territories are Orange, while Prussian are lemon-yellow. This map is just prior to the War of Austrian Succession, which we will discuss right now.)

Prussian king of the time was Friedrich Wilhelm I. This aggressive king had no interests in extravagance or arts, which enabled him to change Prussia into a garrison state. The uniform of government officials became military uniforms and he, himself, wore them everyday. Friedrich II the Great succeeded the throne after him. Friedrich was known as a loser who got beat up by his father for loving poetry and flowers, although all these incidents turned out to be just the tip of an iceberg of his capabilities.

(This weak-looking prince gives the entire Europe a huge sucker-punch.)

The great monarch, as soon as he assumed the throne, more than doubled his army from 80,000 to 190,000, thanks to the rich treasury he inherited from his frugal father. Prussia became the most militaristic nation of all time; almost 40% of male population were enlisted in the army.

(One of the most unique geniuses in history. Personally, this is the guy I respect the most next to my father. I could actually right an article with just personal praises.)

A huge change was about to occur in Austria as well. The Austrian emperor of the time was Charles VII, who only had female heirs. The most talented of his daughters was Maria Theresa. However, there was a slight problem, and it was the fact that the throne of the Holy Roman Empire, which was traditionally occupied by the Austrian emperors, could not be succeeded by women, and if Austria was to give up the imperial throne, 40% of Austrian territory would be gone with it.

(Maria Theresa in her good-old-days. Thanks to her beauty and background she attracted many admirers and, ironically enough, one of them was Friedrich the Great, who later becomes her arch-nemesis. Of course, his attempt was solely political. Maria Theresa ends up marrying Franz, Duke of Lorraine, whom she actually loved.)

Worried about her daughter’s right to the throne, Charles VII hastily married his daughter to the Duke of Lorraine François Etienne(Franz Stephen in German), and, at the same time, tried to persuade other European nations to approve the Pragmatic Sanction, which asked them to recognize his daughter’s right to rule. Almost begging and even giving out fiefs to others, Charles VII was able to get the Sanction signed.

(Maria Theresa in her throne. It is more than evident that she was a highly gifted leader, considering the disadvantages of a woman she had to go through. Of course, she virtually lost the War of Austrian Succession and the Seven Years’ War.)

When Charles VII died and his daughter assumed the throne, other European powers feigned ignorance and denied Theresa’s succession. They were attempting to destroy Austria and the Holy Roman Empire during this chaotic time. In the fall of 1740, Friedrich II became the first to defy the young empress’s authority and invaded Silesia without declaring war. Another state of Bavaria(Bayern) also invaded Austria trying to usurp the position of Austrian emperor; France aided the invasion force as well.

Who, then, was on Austria’s side? Britain and Russia were supposed to help Austria but Sweden, who aligned with Prussia, invaded the Russians and held them back. Britain could barely help the Austrians, because its archenemy France joined the war.

(The yellow-colored territory is Hanover. The British crown also ruled Hanover, and French threat on the state was the apparent reason why Britain joined in.)

After 8 years of bloodshed, European powers decided to recognize Theresa’s right in the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, although the war did not end in Austrian victory. Silesia was ceded to Prussia and Holy Roman Emperor’s throne went to her husband. The war ended imperfectly.

Now, why am I talking about the War of Austrian Succession? It’s because this war’s Season 2 was the Seven Years’ War.

After the war, Maria Theresa of Austria was still pissed because of the cession of Silesia. Count Kaunitz, Austrian Secretary of State, came up with a plan, in which Austria would make alliance with France over historical grievances in order to surround Prussia in three directions with Russia in the east, Austria of the south, and France in the west, to defeat Friedrich II. Surprisingly enough, Louis XV of agreed to this plan and, with a series of marriages, in which Marie Antoinette married Louis August(who later becomes Louis XVI), Austria and France became families. This alliance would later be called the Alliances of Three Ladies.

Already disappointed at Austrian incapability during the War, Britain, hearing this news, immediately made treaties with Prussia. Thus, an alliance of Britain, Hannover, and Prussia was established. This incident is called the Reversal of Alliances, or the Diplomatic Revolution. This shifted the balance of worldwide powers.

(Spain was thought to be on France’s side because of the Bourbon line of monarchs and Portugal right next to it was close friends with Great Britain.)

(Why was this alliance called the Alliance of Three Ladies? It’s because of Madame de Pompadour, who was a mistress of Louis XV, Maria Theresa of Austria, and Empress Elizabeth of Russia.)

In response to this menace, our badass, Friedrich II, invaded Austria again in 1754, breaking the calm before a storm. His plan was to occupy Austrian capital of Vienna quickly in order to force Austria to surrender, and to invade Russia while the army of Great Britain-Hannover would hold the French(the official beginning of the war was the French invasion of British island of Minorca in the Mediterranean).

I think this is enough explanation of European stories, so let’s get back to North America. Unlike the War of Austrian Succession, the Seven Years’ War included many different colonial theaters all over the globe.

(States, colonies, and theaters that were involved in the Seven Years’ War. Territory-wise, it was a larger war than WWI.)

At the time, there were three major forces occupying North America: New France of Canada and the Midwest, the Thirteen British Colonies in the Easter Seaboard, which we have discussed so far, and New Spain of Florida and New Mexico. We will be focusing on the war between the Thirteen colonies and New France. The Seven Years’ War in North America, or French-Indian War to be exact, occurred in the Ohio River Valley.

(The Ohio River Valley in the middle of North America.)

(European colonies in North America. The Ohio River Valley was very significant to the blue, which is the French, because they were trying to connect their colonies that were located in the south and the north, and also because they wanted to suppress British expansion in the region.)

Great Britain founded Ohio Company to purchase lands in Ohio region. In response to this measure, French colonial forces built a line of forts, which blocked the trade of between the Native American tribes in the West and British colonies. Threatened by the situation, Virginia, as a leader of the colonies, mustered volunteer militia. However, even at this point, Britain was unsure of how much the French influence was stretched.

On this page of history, we find a familiar name. The governor of Virginia, Robert Dinwiddie, gave 150 militiamen to 22-year-old Colonel George Washington and said “We heard the French were making a move in the west. Go find out what’s happening and build a fort if you feel like it?” or something like that.

(George Washington in his early year as Colonel in the Virginian militia. The experiences in the French-Indian War would help him a lot in his career later on.)

George Washington had previously attempted to stop the French movement. Before this expedition, he visited the French Fort le Beuf(which means Fort Beef) and demanded the withdrawal of the French. Politely enough, the French commander refused his request at the dinner table.

This time, with his militiamen, Washington decided to construct a fort in present-day Pittsburgh and headed west, only to find out that the French had already built Fort Duquesne there.

(Fort Duquesne was built in the bank of three rivers. Some people pronounce it Dae-que-son, but according to Historian Jeff Carnazzo, it is pronounced Dew-cane. This is the correct way to say it.)

He and his troops had to turn around, and inadvertently faced a small French detachment force and routed them with the help of the Iroquois. The militiamen built Fort Necessity in the south of Fort Duquesne. However, a fierce French attack ensued, as it turns out that a French diplomat, who was a brother to the French commander, was among the dead bodies of the defeated detachment.

11 hours of skirmish resulted in the death of one third of the militiamen, although Colonel George Washington still refused to surrender. Tired of this meaningless combat, French commander abandoned the siege so that the militiamen would return to Virginia. Now, we may ask, why he did not kill Washington. Well, considering the delicate and powder-keg diplomatic situation of the time, it would definitely result in a war if the French army executed a British officer. I know, I know. The war did happen nonetheless.

This defeat did not harm Washington’s reputation greatly, for everyone knew that it was not his fault. However, the colonists actually started to think, ‘We actually could die if this keeps happening.’ Worried about this matter, Benjamin Franklin convened a congress of delegates from 13 colonies in Albany in the May of 1754.

(Benjamin Franklin was reportedly the most famous guy among the colonists, and with his fame he tried to save the colony. Although he was in his 70s, he plays a crucial in the Revolutionary War.)

This congress that met in Albany is referred to as Albany Congress, and it is notable that delegates from only 7 colonies, not all of them. The first agenda of the Congress was to keep the Iroquois Confederacy on Britain’s side, the second was to ask mainland Great Britain for help, and the last was to established a united government of the colonies. A union of Native American tribes, the Iroquois Confederacy initially fought alongside the British due to the grudges with the Hurons who sided with the French. At the congress, the alliance was re-recognized firmly.

(The Iroquois Confederacy even had its own flag. The Confederacy was constituted by the tribes of Mohawk, Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, and Oneida, and was so developed that they even had their own constitution. It was the most powerful entity in the continent before the European expedition began.)

The agenda of requesting reinforcements was completed easily. Great Britain accepted the request and sent 2 regular regiments under General Edmund Braddock. Although there is no opposition to the fact that Braddock was one of the most capable cavalry officers in the British imperial army, it became evident that his abilities were limited to the European theater. In other words, he was not to use conventional tactics, which were conducted in the plains of the Old World, in mountains and forests in North American theater; he did exactly the opposite.

(The British line infantry was considered the best in the world along with Prussian regulars. They were often referred to as ‘Red Coats’ due to their unique uniform.)

The third agenda, an attempt to found an united government of America, failed utterly. Individual colonies refused to give up their autonomy and sovereignty. Disappointed Franklin would have to wait 20 more years to achieve this goal.

Braddock headed to the Ohio River Valley right after his arrival. Among his aide-du-camp members was George Washington, not because he was particular familiar with the geography, but because he wrote a letter to the newly arrived general if he would be able to accompany the expedition. According to Historian Joseph Ellis, George Washington wrote his brother Lawrence that he is very glad to have connections to the regular army of Great Britain.

A battle broke out when the imperial army arrived at Monongahela River bank in July of 1755. 1,400 Red Coats and 500 militiamen were marching in a long line with women miscellaneous works just as they did back in Europe. Not even bothering to conduct pre-battle reconnaissance or intelligence collecting, Braddock was attacked by 100 French regulars, the same number of Canadian militia and 500 Huron tribesmen.

(The map of the Monongahela just before the battle on July 9. The blue lines are the hidden French troops whereas the Red lines and dots are the British force. Evidently the marching line is stretched too far and thin.)

As the British army approached within the firing range, the French fired in between dense woods, resulting in vast British casualties. Braddock lined up his troops, just as he did in Europe, and order them to counterattack with volley. However, the thin Red line of Coats in the middle of a forest could not be a better target for skirmishers.

(The maelstrom of bullets in the Forest of Monongahela. Red Coats, who were used to the field battle of Europe, were no match for the forest indians of the Hurons.)

(The popular European formation of line infantry. There was a reason for this seemingly ridiculous tactics(I might be able to explain this in another post.), but even we, non-experts, know this would not work.)

To make the matter worse, while the Red Coats were falling like leaves, Edmund Braddock fell from his horse after getting shot in his shoulder. The French particularly sniped British officers; the Red crowd started to route.

One fun fact about this battle is that there is a slight discrepancy between the records of Great Britain and the United States. According to British records, the militiamen routed first and the regulars secured rear until they ‘withdrew.’ On the other hand, American historians argue that the Red Coats were distraught and ran first, while the brave soldiers of the colonies protected the tail. Regardless of who ran away first, one thing that both sides agree upon is that young colonel George Washington managed to rally the routing troops and took over the command to fall back orderly.

(General Braddock was shot down. He would die after four days of excruciating pain.)

(George Washington sounding full retreat with heroic leadership.)

French commander General Langrade, who commanded the army of 700 men, thought he did not have sufficient amount of troops to pursue the routing enemy. British Colonel Thomas Dunbar took over the command and decided to abort the entire campaign; Fort Necessity was burned and the British withdrew from the Valley.

The Red Coats suffered the deathes of 456 troops along with 422 wounded soldiers, while the 26 officers died and 37 officers were wounded among 86 in total. Also, during the hasty retreat, wagons and women were left behind, and were captured by the French. On the other hand, the French force did not have to accept much consequence: 8 dead, 4 wounded. Hurons had 15 dead and 12 wounded. It was a decisive victory for France.

The Battle of Monongahela alarmed the States of the seriousness of the French-Indian War. Furthermore, the fleeing Red Coats were well remembered by the colonists. There were not considered invincible anymore.

Today’s article got carried away because I inserted many pictures for the description of events. In the next article, I will discuss how the Seven Years’ War progressed, its effects, and post-war world. I believe these articles can be more exciting with war stories.